Italian Collegeg

John Cabot University

Founded in 1972, John Cabot University (JCU) is an American liberal arts university in the heart of Rome. With 900-1,000 students from 55 countries worldwide, we are the largest overseas American liberal arts university in Italy.

We offer year-long and semester study abroad programs, four-year Bachelor of Arts (BA) and two-year Associate of Arts (AA) undergraduate degree programs as well as summer programs. The language of instruction is English.

Study Abroad & International University Degree Programs:
Whether you are considering studying in Rome with us for four years, or as a visiting student for one year or semester, JCU, with its prestigious and dedicated faculty, and its rich and rigorous curricular offerings, will provide an unforgettable academic experience whose fruits you will enjoy for a lifetime.

- Study Abroad Degree Programs
- Year-Long & Semester Abroad Programs
- Summer Study Programs

JCU offers 4-year Bachelor of Arts (BA) and 2-year Associate of Arts (AA) degree programs in the following areas:

Humanities: Art History; Classical Studies; English Literature; History; Humanistic Studies; Italian Studies

Business and Economics: Business Administration; Economics and Finance; International Business; Marketing

Political and Social Sciences: Communications; International Affairs; Political Science

Italian Colleges

John Cabot University

Founded in 1972, John Cabot University (JCU) is an American liberal arts university in the heart of Rome. With 900-1,000 students from 55 countries worldwide, we are the largest overseas American liberal arts university in Italy.

We offer year-long and semester study abroad programs, four-year Bachelor of Arts (BA) and two-year Associate of Arts (AA) undergraduate degree programs as well as summer programs. The language of instruction is English.

Study Abroad & International University Degree Programs:
Whether you are considering studying in Rome with us for four years, or as a visiting student for one year or semester, JCU, with its prestigious and dedicated faculty, and its rich and rigorous curricular offerings, will provide an unforgettable academic experience whose fruits you will enjoy for a lifetime.

- Study Abroad Degree Programs
- Year-Long & Semester Abroad Programs
- Summer Study Programs

JCU offers 4-year Bachelor of Arts (BA) and 2-year Associate of Arts (AA) degree programs in the following areas:

Humanities: Art History; Classical Studies; English Literature; History; Humanistic Studies; Italian Studies

Business and Economics: Business Administration; Economics and Finance; International Business; Marketing

Political and Social Sciences: Communications; International Affairs; Political Science

Ireland Colleges

National College Of Ireland

National College of Ireland (NCI) is located in the heart of Dublin City. The college has three schools; The School of Business, the School of Computing and the School of Community Studies. We provide accredited third-level courses in our specialist areas of accountancy, finance, business, human resource management, computing and community studies. Full and part-time courses in these areas are offered at different levels, from certificate to diploma, degree and postgraduate level. NCI's courses are accredited by HETAC/FETAC and qualify for relevant grants, free fees (full-time programmes / courses) and tax relief.

NCI has been to the forefront of innovation in learning for over 50 years, transforming education in a way that is both simple and extraordinary. Our state-of-the-art campus in Dublin's International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) provides the hub for an innovative and unique programme of work in academic development, teaching and research. Through our campus in the IFSC, our network of 30 off-campus centres, on-site educational hubs within industry and our online programme, we in NCI are committed to enabling learners to avail of leading edge education.

Courses: Accredited Full-Time & Part-Time Courses at different levels, from certificate to diploma, degree and postgraduate level, in Accounting, Financial Services, Business, Human Resource Management, Marketing, Management, Technology, Computing, Humanities and related fields. We also offer online & flexible distance learning courses.

Indian Colleges

Indian Board of Alternative Medicines

(Department of Distance and Continuing Education) is a Government registered institution, internationally recognized and the largest organization of Alternative Medicines in India. The Board is duly incorporated under Act XXVI of 1961 of Government of West Bengal, based on the Central Government of India Act XXI of 1860 and the Literary & Scientific Institutions Act, 1854.

The Board is also internationally affiliated with the IAEWP - An Affiliate of the United Nations, ECOSOC, UNICEF and UNESCO.

I.B.A.M. is the only organization in India to be recognized by and affiliated to the United Nations University for Peace (an international intergovernmental university established UN Resolution No. 35/55/5/XII/80) and duly recognized by the Government of India which is a signatory to the international agreement for the establishment of the University for Peace and Charter of the University for Peace of the UN.

"It was very nice to complete my education with you. I applied for board certification as a naturopathic doctor. Please note that your diploma was accepted in order for me to sit for that exam, and is held in high regard by the board examiners. Thank you."

Indian Colleges

Indian Board of Alternative Medicines

(Department of Distance and Continuing Education) is a Government registered institution, internationally recognized and the largest organization of Alternative Medicines in India. The Board is duly incorporated under Act XXVI of 1961 of Government of West Bengal, based on the Central Government of India Act XXI of 1860 and the Literary & Scientific Institutions Act, 1854.

The Board is also internationally affiliated with the IAEWP - An Affiliate of the United Nations, ECOSOC, UNICEF and UNESCO.

I.B.A.M. is the only organization in India to be recognized by and affiliated to the United Nations University for Peace (an international intergovernmental university established UN Resolution No. 35/55/5/XII/80) and duly recognized by the Government of India which is a signatory to the international agreement for the establishment of the University for Peace and Charter of the University for Peace of the UN.

"It was very nice to complete my education with you. I applied for board certification as a naturopathic doctor. Please note that your diploma was accepted in order for me to sit for that exam, and is held in high regard by the board examiners. Thank you."

Indian Colleges

Indian Board of Alternative Medicines

(Department of Distance and Continuing Education) is a Government registered institution, internationally recognized and the largest organization of Alternative Medicines in India. The Board is duly incorporated under Act XXVI of 1961 of Government of West Bengal, based on the Central Government of India Act XXI of 1860 and the Literary & Scientific Institutions Act, 1854.

The Board is also internationally affiliated with the IAEWP - An Affiliate of the United Nations, ECOSOC, UNICEF and UNESCO.

I.B.A.M. is the only organization in India to be recognized by and affiliated to the United Nations University for Peace (an international intergovernmental university established UN Resolution No. 35/55/5/XII/80) and duly recognized by the Government of India which is a signatory to the international agreement for the establishment of the University for Peace and Charter of the University for Peace of the UN.

"It was very nice to complete my education with you. I applied for board certification as a naturopathic doctor. Please note that your diploma was accepted in order for me to sit for that exam, and is held in high regard by the board examiners. Thank you."

Indian Colleges

Indian Board of Alternative Medicines

(Department of Distance and Continuing Education) is a Government registered institution, internationally recognized and the largest organization of Alternative Medicines in India. The Board is duly incorporated under Act XXVI of 1961 of Government of West Bengal, based on the Central Government of India Act XXI of 1860 and the Literary & Scientific Institutions Act, 1854.

The Board is also internationally affiliated with the IAEWP - An Affiliate of the United Nations, ECOSOC, UNICEF and UNESCO.

I.B.A.M. is the only organization in India to be recognized by and affiliated to the United Nations University for Peace (an international intergovernmental university established UN Resolution No. 35/55/5/XII/80) and duly recognized by the Government of India which is a signatory to the international agreement for the establishment of the University for Peace and Charter of the University for Peace of the UN.

"It was very nice to complete my education with you. I applied for board certification as a naturopathic doctor. Please note that your diploma was accepted in order for me to sit for that exam, and is held in high regard by the board examiners. Thank you."

Indian Colleges

Indian Board of Alternative Medicines (Department of Distance and Continuing Education) is a Government registered institution, internationally recognized and the largest organization of Alternative Medicines in India. The Board is duly incorporated under Act XXVI of 1961 of Government of West Bengal, based on the Central Government of India Act XXI of 1860 and the Literary & Scientific Institutions Act, 1854.

The Board is also internationally affiliated with the IAEWP - An Affiliate of the United Nations, ECOSOC, UNICEF and UNESCO.

I.B.A.M. is the only organization in India to be recognized by and affiliated to the United Nations University for Peace (an international intergovernmental university established UN Resolution No. 35/55/5/XII/80) and duly recognized by the Government of India which is a signatory to the international agreement for the establishment of the University for Peace and Charter of the University for Peace of the UN.

"It was very nice to complete my education with you. I applied for board certification as a naturopathic doctor. Please note that your diploma was accepted in order for me to sit for that exam, and is held in high regard by the board examiners. Thank you."

Indian Colleges

Indian Board of Alternative Medicines (Department of Distance and Continuing Education) is a Government registered institution, internationally recognized and the largest organization of Alternative Medicines in India. The Board is duly incorporated under Act XXVI of 1961 of Government of West Bengal, based on the Central Government of India Act XXI of 1860 and the Literary & Scientific Institutions Act, 1854.

The Board is also internationally affiliated with the IAEWP - An Affiliate of the United Nations, ECOSOC, UNICEF and UNESCO.

I.B.A.M. is the only organization in India to be recognized by and affiliated to the United Nations University for Peace (an international intergovernmental university established UN Resolution No. 35/55/5/XII/80) and duly recognized by the Government of India which is a signatory to the international agreement for the establishment of the University for Peace and Charter of the University for Peace of the UN.

"It was very nice to complete my education with you. I applied for board certification as a naturopathic doctor. Please note that your diploma was accepted in order for me to sit for that exam, and is held in high regard by the board examiners. Thank you."

Greece Colleges

Aegean College

Aegean College (AC) is part of the Omiros Education Group, a reputable, dynamic group of educational institutions that has over 60 years of experience in providing high caliber education to its students. At Aegean College (AC) we believe our reputation is just a stepping stone for further success. The College continues to hold first place in IT and fourth place in Business among Athens Higher Educational Institutions. Aegean College (AC) is affiliated to the University of Huddersfield, a UK State Universities and Edexcel International, the British examination body. (AC) is a member of the Hellenic Colleges Association and Accredited by the British Accreditation Council. As such, our students are provided with the unique opportunity to achieve UK University degrees while studying in Athens, Greece.

Courses: Undergraduate & Postgraduate On-Campus & Distance Learning courses in fields including Science, Computing, Multimedia Design & Technology, Sound Engineering, Business, MBA, MBI, Music Production, ACTDEC Distance Diploma, TESOL and much more.

Greece Colleges

Aegean College

Aegean College (AC) is part of the Omiros Education Group, a reputable, dynamic group of educational institutions that has over 60 years of experience in providing high caliber education to its students. At Aegean College (AC) we believe our reputation is just a stepping stone for further success. The College continues to hold first place in IT and fourth place in Business among Athens Higher Educational Institutions. Aegean College (AC) is affiliated to the University of Huddersfield, a UK State Universities and Edexcel International, the British examination body. (AC) is a member of the Hellenic Colleges Association and Accredited by the British Accreditation Council. As such, our students are provided with the unique opportunity to achieve UK University degrees while studying in Athens, Greece.

Courses: Undergraduate & Postgraduate On-Campus & Distance Learning courses in fields including Science, Computing, Multimedia Design & Technology, Sound Engineering, Business, MBA, MBI, Music Production, ACTDEC Distance Diploma, TESOL and much more.

Greece Colleges

Aegean College

Aegean College (AC) is part of the Omiros Education Group, a reputable, dynamic group of educational institutions that has over 60 years of experience in providing high caliber education to its students. At Aegean College (AC) we believe our reputation is just a stepping stone for further success. The College continues to hold first place in IT and fourth place in Business among Athens Higher Educational Institutions. Aegean College (AC) is affiliated to the University of Huddersfield, a UK State Universities and Edexcel International, the British examination body. (AC) is a member of the Hellenic Colleges Association and Accredited by the British Accreditation Council. As such, our students are provided with the unique opportunity to achieve UK University degrees while studying in Athens, Greece.

Courses: Undergraduate & Postgraduate On-Campus & Distance Learning courses in fields including Science, Computing, Multimedia Design & Technology, Sound Engineering, Business, MBA, MBI, Music Production, ACTDEC Distance Diploma, TESOL and much more.

Greece Colleges

Aegean College

Aegean College (AC) is part of the Omiros Education Group, a reputable, dynamic group of educational institutions that has over 60 years of experience in providing high calibre education to its students. At Aegean College (AC) we believe our reputation is just a stepping stone for further success. The College continues to hold first place in IT and fourth place in Business among Athens Higher Educational Institutions. Aegean College (AC) is affiliated to the University of Huddersfield, a UK State Universities and Edexcel International, the British examination body. (AC) is a member of the Hellenic Colleges Association and Accredited by the British Accreditation Council. As such, our students are provided with the unique opportunity to achieve UK University degrees while studying in Athens, Greece.

Courses: Undergraduate & Postgraduate On-Campus & Distance Learning courses in fields including Science, Computing, Multimedia Design & Technology, Sound Engineering, Business, MBA, MBI, Music Production, ACTDEC Distance Diploma, TESOL and much more.

Greece Colleges

Aegean College

Aegean College (AC) is part of the Omiros Education Group, a reputable, dynamic group of educational institutions that has over 60 years of experience in providing high calibre education to its students. At Aegean College (AC) we believe our reputation is just a stepping stone for further success. The College continues to hold first place in IT and fourth place in Business among Athens Higher Educational Institutions. Aegean College (AC) is affiliated to the University of Huddersfield, a UK State Universities and Edexcel International, the British examination body. (AC) is a member of the Hellenic Colleges Association and Accredited by the British Accreditation Council. As such, our students are provided with the unique opportunity to achieve UK University degrees while studying in Athens, Greece.

Courses: Undergraduate & Postgraduate On-Campus & Distance Learning courses in fields including Science, Computing, Multimedia Design & Technology, Sound Engineering, Business, MBA, MBI, Music Production, ACTDEC Distance Diploma, TESOL and much more.

Greece Colleges

Source: Greece Colleges

Azerbaijan Travel Guide

 Azerbaijan Travel Guide

Types of visa
Visa consists of three categories that include diplomatic, service and ordinary. 
There are also two types of visa:

Entrance visa is usually valid from three days up to three months. One time or ordinary entrance visa allows only one entrance and exit during its period of validity. Whereas multiple entrance visas that are normally valid from 1 year up to 2 years allows person for multiple entrance-exit to the country during the that period. If the visa is not used during these periods it will expire.

Transit visa that can be one time or multiple transit, are granted to foreigners and stateless persons travelling to third countries via the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Transit visa allows person to stay in the Republic of Azerbaijan maximum 5 days.

Foreigners and stateless persons can obtain ordinary (one time) entrance visa within the objectives as mentioned below:

• Business purpose
• Scientific purpose
• Education purpose
• Labor purpose
• Tourism purpose
• Cultural purpose
• Sport purpose
• Humanitarian purpose
• Purpose of personal visit

Diplomatic and service entrance visa can be obtained only by persons that are coming to Azerbaijan with official purposes.
One time entrance visas are issued by Azerbaijani diplomatic missions and consulates for the foreigners or stateless persons, who come to Azerbaijan for labor activity.
More information on rules of issuing personal permits for paid labor activity can be found on the official web-pages of State Migration Service of the Republic of Azerbaijan www.migration.gov.az.

Required documentation for visa

1). To obtain a visa by the diplomatic representations and consulates of the Republic of Azerbaijan abroad, as well as by means of the Consular Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan one need to present the following documents:

• 1 application-form
• Double colored photos (3x4cm, in white background)
• Foreigner’s passport and stateless person’s identification card
• Invitation letter from receiving part (in 2 copies)
• Receipt of state fee:
• Abroad – for granting visa
• In the Republic of Azerbaijan – for sending appropriate instructions by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan Republic to the diplomatic representations and consulates of the Republic of Azerbaijan connected with granting visa on the basis of invitation letter.

2). To obtain a visa by the visa divisions of the Consular Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs operated in Heydar Aliyev International Airport and Ganja International Airport, as well as by the  visa division of the Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic operated in Nakhchivan International Airport one need to present the following:

• 1 application-form
• Double colored photos (3x4cm, in white background)
• Foreigner’s passport and stateless person’s identification card
• Invitation letter from receiving part (in 2 copies)
• Receipt of state fee for granting visa (fee is paid in cash)

Please be aware that if there is less than 3 months for expiry of ones passport and stateless person’s identification document visa is not granted.

Payment
Each member of the travel group of foreigners and stateless persons have to pay state fees for himself/herself. In case of rejection for granting a visa, the state fee paid by foreigners or stateless persons will not be given back.

Countries applying the visa-free regime
According to the bilateral interstates agreement, mutual visa-free regime is applied between the Republic of Azerbaijan and countries listed below.

I Group:
Mutual visa-free regime is applied between the nationals of the Republic of Azerbaijan and appropriate states holding diplomatic or service (official/special) passports;

II Group:
Mutual visa-free regime is applied between national of both countries holding any kind of valid passport –including diplomatic, service (official/service) or ordinary passports providing the right of international cross-border; stateless persons holding relevant identity document providing the right of international cross-border and granted especially to the stateless persons by the relevant state bodies of the Azerbaijan Republic or appropriate foreign country;  nationals or stateless persons holding Reentry Certificate – temporary document for international cross border, granted only for returning to the citizenship country or permanent residence country in the cases of lost/theft/became invalid/expiry of passport.

*Upon the termination of temporary staying duration (90 days) foreigners and stateless persons have to extend of this duration or leave the country. Foreigner and stateless person coming to Azerbaijan in visa required regime and extended his/her temporary staying duration in the Republic of Azerbaijan for next 90 days have to leave the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan upon the termination of this extended duration.

III Group:
Only following countries are applying a visa-free regime for the nationals of the Republic of Azerbaijan holding ordinary passport in unilateral order.

Countries:
Diplomatic and service type of passports / 90 days stay in the country without visa:
Albania, Austria, Belarus, Bulgaria, Georgia, Hungary, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Montenegro Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Tajikistan, UEA, Ukraine, Uzbekistan

Diplomatic and service type of passports / 30 days stay in the country without visa:
China, Croatia, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, Turkmenistan

Diplomatic, service and official type of passports / 90 days stay in the country without visa:
Brazil, Columbia, Cuba, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Serbia
Argentina* (30 days)

Diplomatic type of passports only / 90 days stay in the country without visa:
Estonia, France, Lithuania, Mexico, Poland, Slovenia, Spain

Armenia Travel Guide

Armenia Travel Guide

Visas are required by all except:
(a) nationals continuing their journey within 72 hours, provided remaining in the airport transit lounge and holding all documents required for the next destination and confirmed onward ticket.
(b) Argentine Republic, Azerbaijan Belarus, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Georgia, France, Hungary, India, Iran Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, Moldova, Montenegro, Poland, Romania Russian Federation, Serbia, Singapore, Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Uzbekistan citizens.

Russia Travel Guide

Russia Travel Guide

Russia is at once breathtaking, baffling and stunningly beautiful. Monumental in every respect, it’s a land where untamed wilderness sits alongside bustling urban centres and adventure lurks around every corner. From imperial splendour to icy Siberian tundra and from time worn Soviet-era monuments to uber-hip urban culture, Russia is a land of contradiction and superlatives. No wonder Churchill described it as “a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma.

Portugal Travel Guide

Portugal Travel Guide

Long considered primarily a haven for sun seekers and golfers, Portugal is also one of Europe’s unspoilt gems when you take the chance to dig a little deeper. This land of traditional villages and vibrant cities has a charming countryside strewn with historical treasures and a wide assortment of World Heritage sites - natural and cultural wonders that offer a window into this once great seafaring nation. Take in the prehistoric drawings at Foz Coa or 15th-century sea port at Angra do Heroísmo, alongside the other designated sites around the country that zip you back in time.

Argentina Travel Guide

Argentina Travel Guide

Countries that require a visa:
Afghanistan, Albania, Angola, Antigua And Barbuda, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, The Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Belarus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, People’s Republic Of China, Comoros Islands, Democratic Republic Of The Congo, Republic of the Congo, Cuba, Djibouti, Dominica, Egypt, Ecuatorial Guinea, Republic Of Eritrea, East Timor, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Georgia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Ivory Coast, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Kiribati, Democratic People’s Republic Of Korea, Kuwait, Laos, Lesotho, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Marshall Islands, Morocco, Mauritius, Mauritania, Micronesia, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Mozambique, Myanmar Ex Birmania), Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Palestine, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Russia, Rwanda, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, Samoa, Sao Tome And Principe, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Syria, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Tajikistan, Taiwan, Tanzania, Togo, Tonga, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Ukraine, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

Angola

Angola

Angola Travel Guide

Angola Travel Guide

What documents will be required?• Your passport must be valid for another six months minimum and contain two blank pages. 
• Travelers need an international vaccination certificate for entry as well indicating yellow fever inoculation within the last ten years according to the Angolan government, but at least on the Namibian/Angolan border this is not an issue. 
• You also need a letter of invitation from a private individual, organization or company stating that they will take responsibility for your stay (a hotel reservation is NOT an acceptable substitution).
• Evidence of sufficient funds ($100.00 per day) to support stay in destination such as pay stubs, traveler’s cheques, and/or most recent bank statement.

Algeria

Algeria

Algeria

Algeria Travel Guide

For the intrepid traveler a trip to Algeria is an adventure in waiting. Its troubled reputation may put off anyone looking for the quiet life but for those who take the time to explore Algeria offers culture and adventure in spades.

Here, a beguiling blend of cultures spans a vast chunk of land - taking in everything from whitewashed fishing ports, verdant hillsides and olive groves to the unmatched dramatic landscapes of the Sahara Desert and the Hoggar Mountains.

Malta Travel Guide

 Malta Travel Guide

From the MTV music festival in Valletta to abseiling and climbing in Gozo Malta rocks. Small in size but big in character Malta offers cool cafes, buzzing night clubs exhilarating activities exciting festivals and amazing archaeological wonders whatever the time of year.

Situated in the center of the Mediterranean the Maltese archipelago, which includes Gozo, Comino, Cominotto and Filfla, exudes character at every turn from its vibrant blue waters and secluded bays to medieval walled citadels and splendid baroque churches. Every year, visitors flock to Malta's striking coastline to sample its mouth-watering seafood and immerse themselves in fascinating history, traditional villages and colorful fiestas.

Germany

Germany Travel Guide

Still misunderstood by many, Germany stands as one of the most endlessly engaging countries on the continent. Anyone expecting a homogeneous nation conforming to rigid Teutonic stereotypes is in for a shock. As a travel destination it’s somewhere with huge personality notable for a clutch of truly lovable cities culture served up in hefty portions and rural scenery so heart-melting you’ll be left bemused why some people still think of the place as lacking allure.

Cyprus Travel Guide

Cyprus Travel Guide

With beautiful villages surrounded by vineyards and cities full of trendy art galleries, spas and restaurants to shipwreck diving skiing on snow-covered mountains and strolls around fabulous archaeological sites colorful Cyprus is every inch a sophisticated Mediterranean destination.

The island, which legend has it was where Aphrodite the ancient Greek goddess of love and beauty was born at the picturesque Petra Tou Romiou near Paphos lies on the fringes of Europe at a point where Asian Middle Eastern and European cultures merge. While giving the island a rich mix of traditions cuisine and music Cyprus’s strategic position has also made it desirable to countless powers over millennia. All have left their mark.